A. 克鲁格曼不可能三角的中国货币政策
美国财长斯诺访华也传达了同样的观点。他在接受采访时说,中国要扩大对外开放,从中国自身的利益角度出发,应该实施由市场供求决定的灵活的汇率制度。政府不要干预过多,否则不可能存在比较独立的货币政策。关于央行的此次紧缩银根的行动,国内有看法认为,央行最终选择提高准备金率来控制过快的国内信贷增长,这种选择显然受到我国盯住美元的汇率制度的约束,汇率稳定优先的考虑使得央行在一定程度上丧失了货币政策的独立性。
事实上,目前中国货币政策并不具有完全的独立性,目前我国M并不等于1。货币政策通过利率影响生产和消费的渠道并不畅通,没有形成市场供求决定意义上的利率。按照“先利率,后汇率”的开放原则,利率的市场化比汇率放开更紧要。因此在中国建立一个有效的货币政策体系前,必须保持汇率稳定,以减少风险和波动。正如美国经济学家罗伯特 蒙代尔所言,中国货币政策最大的成就就是保持了外汇稳定。外汇稳定已成为中国实施货币政策的重要基础和指导方针。中国应当坚持稳定的汇率制度。如果人民币汇率出现大幅度波动,将给中国经济带来许多不稳定因素,并很可能使中国重蹈20世纪七八十年代日本经济衰退的覆辙。
B. 蒙代尔理论的三元悖论
从“二元冲突”到“三元悖论”
第二次世界大战后首先对固定汇率制提出异议的是米尔顿·弗里德曼(MihonFriedman)。他在1950年发表的《浮动汇率论》一文中指出,固定汇率制会传递通货膨胀,引发金融危机,只有实行浮动汇率制才有助于国际收支平衡的调节。接着,英国经济学家詹姆斯·米德(JamesMeade)在1951年写成的《国际经济政策理论》第一卷《国际收支》一书中也提出,固定汇率制度与资本自由流动是矛盾的。他认为,实行固定汇率制就必须实施资本管制,控制资本尤其是短期资本的自由流动。该理论被称为米德“二元冲突”或“米德难题”。
与汇率稳定这三个政策目标不可能同时达到。1999年,美国经济学家保罗·克鲁格曼(PaulKrugman)根据上述原理画出了一个三角形,他称其为“永恒的三角形”,清晰地展示了“蒙代尔三角”的内在原理。在这个三角形中,A顶点表示选择货币政策自主权,B顶点表示选择固定汇率,C顶点表示资本自由流动。这三个目标之间不可调和,最多只能实现其中的两个,也就是实现三角形一边的两个目标就必然远离另外一个顶点。这就是著名的“三元悖论”。
三元悖论的具体解析
(1)保持本国货币政策的独立性和资本自由流动即处于AC边,必须牺牲汇率的稳定性,实行浮动汇率制。这是由于在资本完全流动条件下,频繁出人的国内外资金带来了国际收支状况的不稳定,如果本国的货币当局部进行干预,亦即保持货币政策的独立性,那么本币汇率必然会随着资金供求的变化而频繁的波动。
(2)保持本国货币政策的独立性和汇率稳定即处于AB边,必须牺牲资本的完全流动性,实行资本管制。在金融危机的严重冲击下,在汇率贬值无效的情况下,唯一的选择是实行资本管制,实际上是政府以牺牲资本的完全流动性来维护汇率的稳定性和货币政策的独立性。大多数经济不发达的国家,比如中国,就是实行的这种政策组合。
(3)维持资本的完全流动性和汇率的稳定性即处于BC边;必须放弃本国货币政策的独立性。在这种情况下,本国或者参加货币联盟,或者更为严格地实行货币局制度,基本上很难根据本国经济情况来实施独立的货币政策对经济进行调整,最多是在发生投机冲击时,短期内被动地调整本国利率以维护固定汇率。可见,为实现资本的完全流动与汇率的稳定,本国经济将会付出放弃货币政策的巨大代价。
C. 蒙代尔不可能三角
在现代金融理论中有一个非常著名的定理,即蒙代尔不可能三角(Impossible triangle)。一个国家不可能同时实现资本流动自由,货币政策的独立性和汇率的稳定性。也就是说,一个国家只能拥有其中两项,而不能同时拥有三项。如果一个国家想允许资本流动,又要求拥有独立的货币政策,那么就难以保持汇率稳定。如果要求汇率稳定和资本流动,就必须放弃独立的货币政策。
在这三个目标之间究竟哪一个更为重要?如果放弃资本流动,将退回到闭关锁国的封闭经济体系,不利于经济增长。如果放弃汇率稳定性,对于任何国家来说都是一场灾难。“两害相较取其轻”,只有放弃独立的货币政策比较可行。放弃独立的货币政策也就是向单一的区域货币或世界货币过渡。于是,人们在贸易全球化的同时开始越来越多地考虑金融全球化,如果货币统一了,就不存在固定汇率、浮动汇率和资本管制的各种弊病了。
斯蒂格里茨曾经作过一个比喻:“小型开放经济就如同在狂风大浪中的小船一样,不论驾驶船的技术怎么样,虽然我们不知道船在什么时候被倾覆,但是,毫无疑问,船最终会被大浪打翻。”在货币市场上可以非常明显地观察到经济规模对稳定性的重要影响。经济规模越大,投机炒作的风险就越小。统一货币的最大的好处,就是让度部分货币主权,换取金融体制的稳定,能够防范和化解金融危机。
某个经济地区实现了单一货币,还可以提高货币体系的透明性。由于统一货币区内各国都放弃了独立的货币政策,不存在某个国家突然增发货币的可能性,从而大大提高了民众对货币政策的信任度。统一货币能够进一步发挥市场机制的作用,节约信息成本和交易成本,促进商品、资本、人员的流动,使得资源配置更加合理化。统一货币可以减少内部磨擦,促进投资,提高国际竞争力。
D. 蒙代尔不可能三角和特里芬之谜的关系
美联储若不大量发行美元,就无法弥补美国庞大的贸易赤字和对外投资;但如果大量发行,各国就会失去对这种货币的信任。这就是所谓的“特里芬之谜”。
而布雷顿森林体系的缺陷在于:
1、美元的清偿能力和对美元的信心构成矛盾,表现为美元的国际货币储备地位和国际清偿力的矛盾、储备货币发行国与非储备货币发行国之间政策协调的不对称性以及固定汇率制下内外部目标之间的两难选择等;
2、汇率体制僵硬,无法通过汇率浮动自动实现国际收支平衡,调节国际收支失衡的责任主要落在非储备货币发行国一方,牺牲了它们的经济发展目标。
综上我们其实可以得出,布雷顿森林体系的确是在尽其所能实现不可能三角,但是并不是因为这样才出现了特里芬之谜,而是因为特里芬之谜——这样一个矛盾的存在使布雷顿森林体系的推进困难重重,最后导致崩溃,因此其因果关系应该是特里芬之谜导致布雷顿森林体系的崩溃,但是特里芬之谜并不是由布雷顿森林体系产生的。
如果还有疑问可以阅读以下相关材料:
http://ke..com/view/1648635.htm?fr=ala0_1
http://ke..com/view/2050241.htm
http://hi..com/alvin_lian/blog/item/b1fe57906a163d8ba877a47f.html
E. 中国经济在挑战不可能三角吗
克鲁格曼不可能三角克鲁格曼不可能三角关于汇率政策与货币政策的协调问题,在20世纪60年代初,弗莱明和蒙代尔认为:资本的自由流动、货币完全独立、汇率稳定三项目标中,一国政府最多只能同时实现两项。这一结论被后人称为“蒙代尔三角”。克鲁格曼在199B年初发表的一篇讨论亚洲金融危机的文章中,也谈到“蒙代尔三角”的问题,他称之为“Theeternaltriangle”(永恒的三角形);国内学者易纲总结为“蒙代尔一克鲁格曼不可能三角形”,并且提出X+Y+M=2定理。美国财长斯诺访华也传达了同样的观点。他在接受采访时说,中国要扩大对外开放,从中国自身的利益角度出发,应该实施由市场供求决定的灵活的汇率制度。政府不要干预过多,否则不可能存在比较独立的货币政策。关于央行的此次紧缩银根的行动,国内有看法认为,央行最终选择提高准备金率来控制过快的国内信贷增长,这种选择显然受到我国盯住美元的汇率制度的约束,汇率稳定优先的考虑使得央行在一定程度上丧失了货币政策的独立性。事实上,目前我国货币政策并不具有完全的独立性,目前我国M并不等于1。货币政策通过利率影响生产和消费的渠道并不畅通,没有形成市场供求决定意义上的利率。按照“先利率,后汇率”的开放原则,利率的市场化比汇率放开更紧要。因此在我国建立一个有效的货币政策体系前,必须保持汇率稳定,以减少风险和波动。正如美国经济学家罗伯特蒙代尔所言,中国货币政策最大的成就就是保持了外汇稳定。外汇稳定已成为中国实施货币政策的重要基础和指导方针。中国应当坚持稳定的汇率制度。如果人民币汇率出现大幅度波动,将给中国经济带来许多不稳定因素,并很可能使中国重蹈20世纪七八十年代日本经济衰退的覆辙。
F. 蒙代尔的三元悖论或不可能三角英文是什么
三元悖论,也称三难选择,它是由美国经济学家保罗·克鲁格曼就开放经济下的政策选择问题所提出的,其含义是:本国货币政策的独立性,汇率的稳定性,资本的完全流动性不能同时实现,最多只能同时满足两个目标,而放弃另外一个目标。根据蒙代尔的三元悖论,一国的经济目标有三种:1、各国货币政策的独立性;2、汇率的稳定性;3、资本的完全流动性。 这三者,一国只能三选其二,而不可能三者兼得。例如,在1944年至1973年的“布雷顿森林体系”中,各国“货币政策的独立性”和“汇率的稳定性”得到实现,但“资本流动”受到严格限制。而1973年以后,“货币政策独立性”和“资本自由流动”得以实现,但“汇率稳定”不复存在。“永恒的三角形”的妙处,在于它提供了一个一目了然地划分国际经济体系各形态的方法。
根据三元悖论,在资本流动,货币政策的有效性和汇率制度三者之间只能进行以下三种选择:
(1)保持本国货币政策的独立性和资本的完全流动性,必须牺牲汇率的稳定性,实行浮动汇率制。这是由于在资本完全流动条件下,频繁出入的国内外资金带来了国际收支状况的不稳定,如果本国的货币当局部进行干预,亦即保持货币政策的独立性,那么本币汇率必然会随着资金供求的变化而频繁的波动。利用汇率调节将汇率调整到真实反映经济现实的水平,可以改善进出口收支,影响国际资本流动。虽然汇率调节本身具有缺陷,但实行汇率浮动确实较好的解决了“三难选择”。但对于发生金融危机的国家来说,特别是发展中国家,信心危机的存在会大大削弱汇率调节的作用,甚至起到恶化危机的作用。当汇率调节不能奏效时,为了稳定局势,政府的最后选择是实行资本管制。
(2)保持本国货币政策的独立性和汇率稳定,必须牺牲资本的完全流动性,实行资本管制。在金融危机的严重冲击下,在汇率贬值无效的情况下,唯一的选择是实行资本管制,实际上是政府以牺牲资本的完全流动性来维护汇率的稳定性和货币政策的独立性。大多数经济不发达的国家,比如中国,就是实行的这种政策组合。这一方面是由于这些国家需要相对稳定的汇率制度来维护对外经济的稳定,另一方面是由于他们的监管能力较弱,无法对自由流动的资本进行有效的管理。
(3)维持资本的完全流动性和汇率的稳定性,必须放弃本国货币政策的独立性。根据蒙代尔-弗莱明模型,资本完全流动时,在固定汇率制度下,本国货币政策的任何变动都将被所引致的资本流动的变化而抵消其效果,本国货币丧失自主性。在这种情况下,本国或者参加货币联盟,或者更为严格地实行货币局制度,基本上很难根据本国经济情况来实施独立的货币政策对经济进行调整,最多是在发生投机冲击时,短期内被动地调整本国利率以维护固定汇率。可见,为实现资本的完全流动与汇率的稳定,本国经济将会付出放弃货币政策的巨大代价。
The Mundell-Fleming model is an economic model first set forth by Robert Mundell and Marcus Fleming. The model is an extension of the IS-LM model. Whereas IS-LM deals with economy under autarky, the Mundell-Fleming model tries to describe a small open economy.
Typically, the Mundell-Fleming model portrays the relationship between the nominal exchange rate and the economy output (unlike the relationship between interest rate and the output in the IS-LM model) in the short run. The Mundell-Fleming model has been used to argue that an economy cannot simultaneously maintain a fixed exchange rate, free capital movement, and an independent monetary policy. This principle is frequently called "the Unholy Trinity," the "Irreconcilable Trinity," the "Inconsistent trinity" or the Mundell-Fleming "trilemma."
Under flexible exchange rate regime
We speak of a system of flexible exchange rates when governments (or central banks) allow the exchange rate to be determined by market forces alone.
Typically this means governments (or central banks) announce an interest rate target which they are prepared to buy or sell any amount of domestic currency to maintain.
[edit] Changes in money supply
An increase in money supply will shift the LM curve to the right. This directly reces the local interest rate and in turn forces the local interest rate lower than the global interest rate. This depreciates the exchange rate of local currency through capital outflow. The depreciation makes local goods cheaper compared to foreign goods and increases export and decreases import. Hence, net export is increased. Increased net export leads to the shifting of the IS curve to the right to the point where the local interest rate will equalize with the global rate. This increases the overall income in the local economy.
A decrease in money supply will cause the exact opposite of the process.
[edit] Changes in government spending
An increase in government expenditure shifts the IS curve to the right. The shift will cause the local interest rate to go above the global rate. The increase in local interest will cause capital inflow and the inflow will make the local currency stronger compared to foreign currencies. Strong exchange rate also makes foreign goods cheaper compared to local goods. This encourages greater import and discourages export and hence, lower net export. As a result, the IS will return to its original location where the local interest rate is equal to the global interest rate. The level of income of the local economy stays the same. The LM curve is not at all affected.
A decrease in government expenditure will reverse the process.
[edit] Changes in global interest rate
An increase in the global interest rate will cause an upward pressure on the local interest rate. The pressure will subside as the local rate closes in on the global rate. When a positive differential between the global and the local rate occurs, holding the LMB curve constant, capital will flow out of the local economy. This depreciates the local currency and helps boost net export. Increasing net export shifts the IS to the right. This shift will continue to the right until the local interest rate becomes as high as the global rate.
A decrease in global interest rate will cause the reverse to occur.
[edit] Under fixed exchange rate regime
We speak of a system of fixed exchange rates when governments (or central banks) announce an exchange rate (the parity rate) at which they are prepared to buy or sell any amount of domestic currency.
[edit] Changes in money supply
Under the fixed exchange rate system, the local central bank or any monetary authority will only change the money supply in order to maintain a level of exchange rate. If there is a pressure to appreciate the exchange rate, the local authority will increase its foreign reserve by purchasing foreign currencies with the local currency. This will return the exchange rate to its previous level. When there is a depreciation pressure, the authority will purchase its own currency in the market with its foreign reserve to return the currency to its pre-pressure state.
A revaluation occurs when there is a permanent increase in exchange rate and hence, decrease in money supply. Devaluation is the exact opposite of revaluation.
[edit] Changes in government expenditure
Increased government expenditure shifts the IS curve to the right. The shift encourages the interest rate to go up and hence, appreciation of the exchange rate. However, the exchange rate is controlled by the local monetary authority in the framework of a fixed system. In order to maintain the exchange and alleviate the pressure on the exchange rate, the monetary authority will purchase foreign currencies with local currencies until the pressure is gone i.e. back to the original level. Such action shifts the LM curve in tandem with the direction of the IS shift. This action increases the local currency supply in the market and lowers the exchange rate — or rather, return the rate back to its original state. In the end, the exchange rate stays the same but the general income in the economy increases.
The reverse is true when government expenditure decreases.
[edit] Changes in global interest rate
To maintain the fixed exchange rate, the central bank must offset the capital flows (in or out) which are caused by the change of the global interest rate to the domestic rate. The central bank must restore the situation where the real domestic interest rate is equal to the real global interest rate to stop net capital flows from changing the exchange rate.
If the global interest rate increases above the domestic rate, capital will flow out to take advantage of this opportunity. This would depreciate the home currency, so the central bank must buy the home currency and sell foreign currency reserves to offset this outflow. This decrease in the money supply shifts the LM curve to the left until the domestic interest rate is the global interest rate.
If the global interest rate declines below the domestic rate, the opposite occurs. Money flows in, the home currency would appreciate, so the central bank must offset this by increasing the money supply (sell domestic currency, buy foreign), the LM curve shifts right, and the domestic interest rate becomes the global interest rate.
[edit] Differences from IS-LM
It is worth noting that some of the result from this model differs from the IS-LM because of the open economy assumption. Result for large open economy on the other hand falls within the result predicted by the IS-LM and the Mundell-Fleming models. The reason for such result is because a large open economy has both the characteristics of an autarky and a small open economy.
In the IS-LM, interest rate will be the key component in making both the money market and the good market in equilibrium. Under the Mundell-Fleming framework of small economy, interest rate is fixed and equilibrium in both market can only be achieved by a change of nominal exchange rate.
[edit] Example
A much simplified version of the Mundell-Fleming model can be illustrated by a small open economy, in which the domestic interest rate is exogenously predetermined by the world interest rate (r=r*).
Consider an exogenous increase in government expenditure, the IS curve will shift upward, with LM curve intact, causing the interest rate and the output to rise (partial crowding out effect) under the IS-LM model.
Nevertheless, as interest rate is predetermined in a small open economy, the LM* curve (of exchange rate and output) is vertical, which means there is exactly one output that can make the money market in the equilibrium under that interest rate. Even though the IS* curve still shift up, it will result in a higher exchange rate and same level of output (complete crowding out effect, which is different in the IS-LM model).
The example above makes an implicit assumption of flexible exchange rate. The Mundell-Fleming model can have completely different implications under different exchange rate regimes. For instance, under a fixed exchange rate system, with perfect capital mobility, monetary policy becomes ineffective. An expansionary monetary policy resulting in an outward shift of the LM curve would in turn make capital flow out of the economy. The central bank under a fixed exchange rate system would have to intervene by selling foreign money in exchange for domestic money to depreciate the foreign currency and appreciate the domestic currency. Selling foreign money and receiving domestic money would rece real balances in the economy, until the LM curve shifts back to the left, and the interest rates come back to the world rate of interest i*.
G. 请结合蒙代尔不可能三角与香港联系汇率制相关知 识,分析香港政府出现内外均衡调控两难的原因
你结合矛盾而不可能三角以双拱电视费电系上关机时分时双拱进互助县内外,所以结婚时莫得而不可能三角。以双广电视费的计双关机十分是双孔敬府出身。另外这个结合磨得恶不补论。三,交易双广电视费吊装关机时,所以分词双孔庆。爱的结合,慕的不可能。三角以声光电和费电系上关机时,
H. 投资不可能三角理论是什么
“不可能三角”这一理论是高度抽象的,建立在严格假设条件的基础上,即完全的资本自由流动、完全的货币独立性和完全的汇率稳定,而没有考虑中间情形。
尽管资本自由流动、货币政策非独立性和固定汇率制度构成一组可行的政策选择,但是这一组合在现实中有效的前提是一国拥有相应数量的外汇储备。
事实上,一国的外汇储备总量再大,也难以应对规模庞大的国际游资。此外,“不可能三角”隐含的假设是一国拥有发达的资本市场和货币市场,但是这在不少国家并不现实。
关于汇率政策与货币政策的协调问题
克鲁格曼在199B年初发表的一篇讨论亚洲金融危机的文章中,也谈到“蒙代尔三角”的问题,他称之为“The eternal triangle”(永恒的三角形);国内学者易纲总结为“蒙代尔一克鲁格曼不可能三角形”,并且提出X+Y+M=2定理。
以上内容参考:网络-不可能三角